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These "baskets" make up the Tripitaka ("Three Baskets") and serve as the main body of scriptures for the Theravada tradition
- The Sutra Pitaka - the discourses of the Buddha.
- The Vinaya Pitaka - accounts on the origin of the sangha and the rules of monastic discipline.
- The Abhidharma Pitaka - scholastic treatises on Buddhist psychology and philosophy
12 .
The world to which Siddhartha Gautama was born was one of religious tormoil and
change. Beginning around 1500 BCE India was influenced by the Vedic religion, or
"Brahmanism," the Aryan warriors had brought to the land
This version of the legend of Siddhartha Gautama is based on the Pali Tripitaka and
later commentaries. Siddhartha Gautama was born in the 6th or 5th century BCE in the
Sakya kingdom, of which his parents were king and queen. The night before his birth,
Siddhartha's mother, the queen Mahamaya, had a dream in which an elephant carrying a
lotus flower in its trunk entered her womb through the right side of her body.
Brahmins (Vedic priests), upon hearing of the dream, predicted that the child would
become either a great monarch or a buddha
In preparation for the birth of her child, Queen Maya left her husband, King
Suddhodana, in order to travel to her parent's home. On the journey to Devadaha,
they passed through Lumbini Gardens, where she gave birth to the Buddha. According
to some legends, after birth, the infant walked seven steps in each of the four
directions, while lotus flowers sprouted where his feet touched the earth. He is
also fabled to have said, "No further births have I to endure, for this is my last
body. Now shall I destroy and pluck out by the roots the sorrow that is caused by
birth and death"
Soon after his birth, 108 Brahmans were invited to the name-giving ceremony. Eight
of these men were experts in interpreting bodily marks. Seven of the eight predicted
that if the child remained at home, he would become a great ruler, but if the child
left home, he would become a buddha. The eighth and youngest of the specialist,
Kondanna, predicted that the child would definintely become a buddha
The young prince was raised in great luxury and wealth, as his father, King
Suddhodana, made every effort "to influence him in favor of a worldly life"
Bhikkhus [monks], I was delicately nurtured, exceedingly delicately nurtured, delicately nurtured beyond measure. In my father's residence lotus-ponds were made: one of blue lotuses, one of red and another of white lotuses, just for my sake... Of Kasi cloth was my turban made; of Kasi my jacket, my tunic, and my cloak...I had three palaces: one for winter, one for summer and one for the rainy season...in the rainy season palace, during the four months of the rains, entertained only by female musicians, I did not come down from the palaceAt the age of 29 Siddhartha had a revelation. Through a series of outings with his charioteer, the prince witnessed four scenes which changed his life. First was " an aged man as bent as a roof gable, decrepit, leaning on a staff, tottering as he walked, afflicted and long past his prime." On another outing he saw "a sick man, suffering and very ill, fallen and weltering in his own excreta." On the third and fourth occasion, the prince saw a dead body, and finally "a shaven- headed man, a wanderer who has gone forth, wearing the yellow robe." Struck with the ascetic's serene and self-possessed figure in the face of such worldly suffering, Siddhartha decided to make the Great Renunciation: "to give up the princely life and become a wandering ascetic." That night he left his family and began his travels south, where centers of learning and spiritual discipline flourished29 .
Siddhartha first went to Alara Kalama, a renowned sage, who taught him how to
attain the "sphere of no-thing." Siddhartha, unsatisfied in his quest for absolute
truth, moved on to become a student of Uddaka Ramaputta, another great teacher.
Ramaputta showed him how to attain the "sphere of neither-perception-nor-
nonperception, which was a higher mystical state than that of no-thing, but still
not high enough for Siddhartha. He thus went in search for more
On his continuing journey, Siddhartha was joined by a group of five ascetics, among
whom was Kondanna, the brahman who had predicted Siddhartha's future asa buddha. For
nearly six years, Siddhartha lived a life of extreme self-mortifications and severe
austerities. In the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha described that time of his life:
Because of so little nourishment, all my limbs became like some withered creepers with knotted joints; my buttocks like a buffalo's hoof; my back- bone protruding like a string of balls; my ribs like rafters of a dilapidated shed; the pupils of my eyes appeared sunk deep in their sockets as water appears shining at the bottom of a deep well; my scalp became shriveled and shrunk as a bitter gourd cut unripe becomes shriveled and shrunk by sun and wind;... the skin of my belly came to be cleaving to by back-bone; when I wanted to obey the calls of nature, I fell down on my face then and there; when I stroked my limbs with my hand, hairs rotted at the roots fell away from my body32 .
As a result of such deprivation, Siddhartha became so weak that he realized he
could not attain enlightenment through such methods. His companions, viewing this
change of method as a weakness, left him to seek truth alone
One day Siddhartha sat at the base of a pipal tree, also known as a bodhi or bo
tree, and decided not to rise until he had attained enlightenment. During the night
Siddhartha defeated Mara, the evil one, who was attempting to prevent Siddhartha's
enlightenment. After having defeated Mara, Siddhartha learned in the first part of
the night of his former existences. During the second part, he gained the power to
see the passing away and rebirth of beings. In the last part of the night he
realized the Four Noble Truths. According to the Buddha, "My mind was
emancipated...Ignorance was dispelled, science (knowledge) arose; darkness was
dispelled, light arose"
On encountering his past companions, he told them of his experience. They were
struck by the change in his demeanor and believed it to be true. The Buddha then
delievered to them his first sermon, "Sermon on Setting in Motion the Wheel of
Truth." He explained to them that one should follow neither extreme self-indulgence
nor self-mortification. Instead one should follow the middle path, which is known as
the Noble Eightfold Path. With these five new disciples, the Buddha created a
community and established the "Triple Jewels" in which one should take refuge. The
Jewels consist of the Buddha, the Dharma, teachings, and the sangha, community
The Buddha spent the next 45 years of his life travelling on foot through
Northeastern India speaking to audiences of different backgrounds
Near the end of the Buddha's life the question was raised as to who would be the
successor or authority after the Buddha's death. In conversations with his cousin
and personal attendant, Ananda, the Buddha stated that there was not a need for a
successor since he had never thought of himself as the "leader." He instead
instructed that the Dharma should be the guide after he was gone and that the monks
should continue to uphold the Vinaya, the code of rules for monastic life. The
Buddha thought that each person should think for themselves on matters of doctrine
and analyze the information before accepting it as truth. As a result, there was
never established a central body of authority on doctrine. No single institution has
the ability to interpret or evaluate doctrine for the religion as a whole
The Buddha died at the small town of Kusinara, almost on the border between the
Brahmanical dominated country and his own homeland of the Sakyans
In discussing the dharma, the teachings, the subject of the Four Noble Truths must
first be approached. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to end the cycle of suffering
and rebirth. Leading a virtuous life is only half of what is required to attain
nirvana. The other component needed is wisdom, which in Buddhism means, "a profound
philosophical understanding of the human condition." Wisdom is the result of long
reflection and deep thought leading to insight into the nature of reality. Nirvana
is the combination of virtue and wisdom and can only be attained when both elements
are present
The First Noble Truth:
The Truth of Suffering
"What, O Monks, is the Noble Truth of Suffering? Birth is suffering,
sickness is suffering, old age is suffering, death is suffering. Pain, grief,
sorrow, lamentation, and despair are suffering. Association with that is unpleasant
is suffering, disassociation from what is pleasant is suffering. Not to get what one
wants is suffering. In short, the five factors of individuality are suffering
This first truth states that suffering is an inevitable part of life and is always
present. This assertion is the basis of the Buddha's teachings
The five factors of individuality that the Buddha mentions are the five aggregates which make up human existence:
These five aggregates are suffering in themselves because there is no mention of
the existence or need for a soul or self. Without a soul or real self, human nature
cannot provide eternal happiness
The Second Noble Truth:
The Truth of Arising
"This, O Monks, is the Truth of the Arising of Suffering. It is this
thirst or craving (tanha) which gives rise to rebirth, which is bound up with
passionate delight and which seeks fresh pleasure now here and now there in the form
of (1) thirst for sensual pleasure, (2) thirst for existence, and (3) thirst for
non-existence
This second noble truth, the Truth of Arising, explains that the cycle of rebirth
is a result of craving. Rebirth is caused by a strong addiction to life and the
pleasant experiences it offers. Although usually thought of as taking place from
life to life, rebirth is continuously happening, from second to second. This
continuity of rebirth is the result of the "accumulated momentum of desire"
Desire is of two kinds, right desire and wrong desire. Tanha is not just desire but
specifically wrong desire, "desire that has become perverted in some sense, usually
by being excessive or wrongly directed." In this second truth, tanha stands for the
"three roots of evil," greed, hatred and delusion
The Third Noble Truth:
The Truth of Cessation
"This, O Monks, is the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering. It is the
utter cessation of that craving (tanha), the withdrawal from it, the renouncing of
it, the rejection of it, liberation from it, non-attachment to it
This truth teaches that when craving is overcome, suffering ceases and as a result
nirvana is attained. The term "nirvana" literally means "blowing out." During this
stage it is the fire of greed, hatred, and delusion which are extinguished
The Fourth Noble Truth:
The Truth of the Path
"This, O Monks, is the Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of
suffering. It is this Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of (1) Right View, (2)
Right Resolve, (3) Right Speech, (4) Right Action, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right
Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness, (8) Right Meditation
The Buddha developed the eightfold path as a way of life designed to bring virtue
and knowledge to fruition. The Path is known as the "Middle Way" because it is the
medium between the two extremes of severe austerity and over indulgence. The eight
factors are divided into the three categories of Morality, Meditation and Wisdom.
These factors represent the way the three categories are to be continually nutured
and not forgotten once achieved. The eightfold path is a guideline for how a buddha
would live, and by living like a buddha, one will eventually become one. This path
is therefore one of self-transformation in which a person's outlook is transformed
from a selfish and narrow one to one of limitless opportunities
Karma
The cycle of rebirth is called samsara, or "endless wandering." The cycle can
continue for eternity and will only end when the person attains nirvana. The Indian
view of reincarnation is distinct because it is determined by one's actions in this
lifetime
There are five or six realms, the number depending on what sources one is using
(early sources list five, but six are mentioned in later works), into which one can
be reborn
Karma is literally defined as "action," although in this case it is concerned with
actions of a particular kind. Karma refers to moral choices and the consequent
actions. Moral actions are unique in that they have both transitive and intransitive
effects. Transitive effects are those that have immediate effect on others, such as
killing or robbing someone. Intransitive effects are those that effect the agent.
Through our decisions we shape our character and future. This can be summed up in
the proverb, "sow an act, reap a habit; sow a habit, reap a character; sow a
character, reap a destiny"
In determining whether an action is good or bad, one must look at the intention and
choice. The impact of the decision on the person or group of people must also be
considered. Performing an act merely because it is considered honorable and correct
does not equate morality. Moral character is based on the impact an action has on
the personality of the individual. The Buddha once stated, "Be moral or virtuous
without being made of morals or virtues"
There are three good and three bad roots to motivation. Bad roots are actions
motivated by greed, hatred and delusion. Those actions inspired by their opposites
such as non-attachment, benevolence and understanding are good. Therefore, good
intentions must lead to right actions which are those that do not harm oneself or
others
The sangha, community, is the assembly of Buddhist monks which study, teach and
preserve the teachings. They serve the laity through example and teachings of
morality
After several centuries from the time of establishment, the sangha came to consist
of two types of monks. The first continued the wandering way of life. This group has
played a significant role in Buddhism, especially in Sri Lanka and Southeastern
Asia. The second group gave up the nomadic lifestyle in trade for permanent monastic
settlements (viharas). Over time, a division of labor and hierarchical structure was
installed without contradicting the community's antiauthoritarian roots
Before Buddhism, men were the primary ones involved in religious or spiritual
pursuits; female involvement was very uncommon. As a result, those who joined the
Order during the beginning were mostly men
A Buddhist monk was initially supposed to live a life of wandering, poverty,
begging, and strict sexual abstinence. They were only allowed to own three robes,
one girdle, an alms bowl, a razor, a needle, and a water strainer used to filter
insects from the drinking water. Although the extent is dependent on the particular
school, most of the standards on poverty, begging and sexual abstinence have been
loosened. Begging has generally become a mere symbolic gesture of humility. The
growth of large monastaries has led to a relaxation of the rules of poverty, and in
some schools sexual intercourse is allowed
The first major division in Buddhism was a result of the First Buddhist Council
held in 483 BCE. This meeting was called in response to the question of the
direction of Buddhism following the death of the Buddha. The decision was made at
this council meeting that Buddhism would thereafter be a monastic religion in
which enlightenment would be impossible to attain outside of the Order. This
decision led to turmoil and a break within Buddhism, from which Hinayana and
Mahayana Buddhism (also sometimes referred to as Northern, Sanskrit or Indian
Buddhism) arose
Hinayana, "Lesser Vehicle," is concerned more with the individual than society as
a whole
There are four stages through which one must traverse in order to become an
arhat. The first is "that of the stream winner or stream enterer - i.e., the one
who has seen the truth, who has experienced the first real intimations of
nirvana." At this stage one will not experience more than seven more rebirths. The
second stage is of the "once-returner - i.e., the one who has moved further toward
the goal so that no more than one additional rebirth will be required to attain it
fully." The third stage is that of the "non- returner," one who will either in
that lifetime or before another rebirth "achieve complete release." The last stage
is one's transformation to an arhat, freeing oneself from all bonds
There are seven factors of enlightenment: clear memory, the exact investigation
of things, energy and sympathy, tranquility, impartiality, and a disposition for
concentration. The last four factors are the "four sublime states," and are
prerequisites for escaping cyclic existence
In this tradition there are two basic forms of meditation. The first form is
called jhanic. In the first stage, Through reflection, the meditator becomes
detached from sensual and impure desires and thoughts. In the second stage, one's
mind achieves a state of concentration and joy. The third stage leaves one
indifferent to everything, as every emotion is lost. The fourth and final stage is
the "abandoning of any sense of satisfaction, pain, or serenity because any
inclination to a good or bad state of mind has disappeared"
Mahayana, "Great Vehicle," refers to a socially oriented attitude
In contrast to the Hinayana ideal of the arhat, followers of the Mahayana
tradition strive to become bodhisattvas, "the one who possesses the innate
tendency to become a buddha, a disposition inherent in all persons"
There are six virtues known as the six perfections (generosity, morality,
patience, vigour, concentration, and wisdom) which are central to the
bodhisattva's elevation to that of a buddha
Mahayana Schools
Madhyamika
The first Mahayana school to develop is considered the Madhyamika or "Middle Way." This school was founded in the mid-2nd century by one of South India's greatest intellects, Nagarjuna. The basis for belief of this division can by summed up in the line, "Form is emptiness, and emptiness is form." They believe that "no affirmation of the nauture of things is possible, thus proving their illusory essence"88 .
Yogachara
The second school to develop under the Mahayana tradition was the Yogachara, "Application of Yoga"89 . The establishment of this school is often attributed to the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu of the 5th century AD. Their main belief is that the mind is the ultimate reality, everything outside of it does not really exist. The universal belief that external things do exist is a mistake and can be corrected by meditation. Through the correct yogic or meditative practice, one can produce a "complete withdrawal or "revulsion" from these fictitious externals" and bring about "an inner concentration and tranquility"90 .
Avatamsaka
Unlike the Yogachara school, the Avatamsaka school emphasizes the "sameness of things, the presence of absolute reality in them, and the identity of facts and ultimate principles." Their core belief is that "all of the elements arise simultaneously, that the whole of things creates itself, that ultimate principles and concrete manifestations are interfused, and that the manifestations are mutually identical." This is believed to have been taught by the buddha Vairocana in the Avatamsaka sutra91 .
Saddharmapundarika
This school's teachings are based on the Saddharmapundarika sutra ("Lotus of the True Law Sutra"), otherwise known as the Lotus Sutra, which is one of the most popular doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism92 . Central to this schoolis the threefold ptruth principle:
- "That all things are void, without substantial reality."
- "That all things have temporary existence."
- "That all things are in the mean or middle state, synthesizing voidness and temporary existence, being both at once"
93 .
Pure Land
The beliefs of the Pure Land schools are grounded int he Sukhavativyuha sutra (Pure Land sutra), which originated in Northern India before the 2nd century AD. This text contains the story of a monk, Dharmakara, who promised to fulfill a number of vows if he attained buddhahood. Dharmakara promised to create a Pure Land, sometimes referred to as the Western Paradise. Evil would not exist in this Pure Land, people would receive any and everything they wanted and would go on to attain nirvana. The school teaches that an individual obtains freedom through faith in the Buddha Amitabha and not by the accumulation of good merit. The main practice of this school is the constant invocation of the name Amitabha94 .
Nichiren
Nichiren is a combination of the Saddharmapundarika and Pure Land schools. This school also focuses on the Lotus Sutra and the repetition of a key phrase. Nichiren (1222-82) was the son of a poor fisherman and after ten years of independent searching and studying, he began teaching that the Lotus Sutra is the the ultimate teaching of the Buddha. He also believed that the only way to attain nirvana and realize one's own buddha nature is through proper worship of a mandala, which symbolizes the buddha nature that is present in all humans. The second practice is the repetition of the phrase "namu Myohorenge-kyo," proof of the follower's faith in the Lotus Sutra95 .
Dhyana
This school of Buddhism is perhaps the best known one in the West. It focuses on meditation as a method to awareness. Traditional Chinese writings credit the creation of this school to a South Indian monk, Bodhidharma, who arrived in China around 520 AD. In the 9th century two divisions developed: Lin-chi (Japanese: Rinzai) and Ts'ao-tung (Japanese: Soto). Lin-chi teachings depended on the kung-an (Japanese: koan)96 . Perhaps the most famous koan is "What is the sound of one hand clapping?" The point of such a question is more to force the person to abandon their rational thought process than to produce an answer97 . The second branch focused on tso-ch'an (Japanese: zazen), "a form of meditation done with eyes half closed and the attention focused on the breath, emptying the mind of all thoughts - or rather letting them float harmlessly by, like figures passing before a mirror"98, 99 .
Ch'an Buddhism was first brought to Japan in the 7th century but took until the 12th century to catch widespread attention. Two monks, Eisai and Dogen, were essential to the spread of Ch'an. In the 12th century Eisai, in an effort to return Japan to true Buddhism, traveled to China. Upon his return he began to teach a strict meditational system centered on koans, and the belief that the school "should defend the state and could observe ceremonial rules and offer prayers and incantations." Dogen, also having traveled to China, established the Soto school in the 13th century. He taught a practice of zazen without focusing on attaining enlightenment and criticized those who did not study scripture
100 .
Most scholars tend to equate Vajrayana Buddhism, the Diamond Vehicle, with the
traditions found in India and Tibet. This school believes that nirvana as sunyata
(voidness) must be accompanied by the compassion of a bodhisattva, karuna. Sunyata
is a passive wisdom which "possesses an absolutely indestructible or diamondlike
(vajra) nature beyond all duality," while kurana is the dynamic element. When
these two elements are realized to be one, enlightenment is attained
Tibetan Buddhism Buddhism was first brought to Tibet in the 7th century through the king's marriage to Buddhist princesses from Nepal and China. After converting from a folk religion, the king established Buddhism as the state religion. However, Buddhism did not receive its push until 747 when a later king invited the Buddhist sage, Padmasambhava, to help complete the royal monastery. He not only aided in the completion of the monastery but also created the first community of Tibetan lamas102 .
The highest position in Tibetan Buddhism is the Grand, or Dalai, Lama. Close to him is the Panchen, or Bogodo, Lama. Next in line are the spiritual dignitaries, Hutukhtus, and then the bodhisattvas, or Hobilghans. These four levels are collectively called the higher clergy and are considered to be the incarnations of Buddhist saints. The lower clergy also has four levels: the novice, the assistant priest, the religious mendicant, and the teacher or abbot
103 .
China
The Mahayana tradition came to China through Central Asia at the start of the
common era. The translations and teachings of a monk by the name of Kumarajiva
(344-413), resulted in the creation of the Chinese Madhyamaka school. During the
T'ang dynasty (618-907 AD), the Buddha Dharma flourished and gained power as it
experienced its golden age. Monasteries multiplied as new schools such as Pure
Land and Ch'an appeared. In 845, Buddha Dharma experienced a major blow as the
community came under persection and many monasteries had to be closed. Henceforth
the community was never able to fully regain its previous prominence. Under
communist rule in the twentieth century, the Dharma community was reduced to "a
remnant," although it is still popular in Taiwan
Korea
Buddhism was brought to Korea from China in the fourth century. The golden age
for Korean Buddhism took place during the Koryo period (932-1392). Soon after for
the next six centuries, Buddhism fell into the background as Confucianism became
the state religion. In 1945 a revival occured with the end of Japanese rule.
Currently an amalgamated Buddhism survives in Korea
Japan
Buddhism came to Japan from Korea in 522. Regent prince Shotoku extablished
Buddhism as the state religion and did much to advance the tradition in Japan.
Several Pure Land sects began to thrive from the tenth to fourteenth centuries and
Zen (Ch'an) entered the country from China near the end of the twelfth century.
The introduction of Nichiren in the thirteenth century marked the end of
developing movements until modern times
Tibet
The first step in the spread of Buddhism in Tibet was made by King Trisong Detsen
(755-797). During his reign, he invited two Indian notables, Shantarakshita and
Padmasambhava to his country. The first of four principal schools of Tibetan
Buddhism, the Nyingma school, is traced to this time. The second and third
schools, the Kagyu and Shakya schools, developed in the eleventh century after a
period of persecution. The last of the four schools, Gelukpa, grew out of a reform
movement in the fourteenth century. By the end of this twentieth century,
"Buddhism in Tibet was reduced to a vestige" as a result of Chinese repression
The West
The first exposure of Buddhism to the Western world came in the thirteenth
century when Pope Innocent IV sent religious envoys to the Mongol Khan
Tricycle Hub
This address contains the interactive forum of Tricycle: The Buddhist
review , "one of the most prestigious Buddhist publications."
http://tricycle.com/indexB.html
eDharma Buddhism Resources
Magazine
A non-sectarian Buddhist resource guide devoted to teaching and supporting
people trying to maintain Buddhist beliefs in today's world.
http://www.edharma.com/
Women
Active in Buddhism
A collection of links and resources on contemporary Buddhist women.
http://www.members.tripod.com/~Lhamo
Guide
to Buddhist Studies
This site is an enormous resource of centers, information, translations
of literature, books, and links to personal websites.
http://members.tripod.com/~Arumugam/buddhiststudies
Buddha's Village
Created to help foster a sense of community, Buddha's Village facilitateson
line discussion groups, a gallery of photographs, teachings and a newsletter.
http://www.buddhasvillage.com/
DharmaNet International
A gateway to dharma chatrooms, teachings and teachers. Its mission is
to "help build a vitaland cooperative online Buddhist community.
http://www.dharmanet.org/
About.com - Buddhism
Links to information, movies, art and magazines among other things.
http://buddhism.about.com/culture/buddhism/mbody.htm
Friends of Buddhism
This site's mission is "to spread Buddhadharma and support all Buddhist
projects worldwide." This page contains resources, and other linksto information.
http://www.fobusa.com
Shambhala Sun
Buddhist inspired journal
http://www.shambhalasun.com/
Cybersangha: the Buddhist Alternative Journal
This site contains publication archives of the Cybersangha, "a journalexamining
new perspectives in Western Buddhism."
http://www.www.newciv.org/CyberSangha/0%7Eindex.html
Dharma the Cat
An explanation of Buddhist beliefs using humor and cartoons.
http://www.DharmaTheCat.com/
Earth Sangha
This organization is dedicated to the belief that the "Buddhistway of
looking at life can play a major role in healing the planet's environmental
crisis.
http://www.earthsangha.org/
The White Path Temple
Still under construction, this site is for those interest in ShinBuddhism
and will soon include a virtual temple visit.
http://www.mew.com/shin
Nichiren's
Coffeehouse and Gohonzon Gallery
A comprehensive study of the Lotus Sutra and information on differentBuddhist
movements.
http://NichirensCoffeehouse.tripod.com/
SGI-USA
The official Soka Gakkai International website.
http://sgi-usa.org
Zen Buddhism
WWW Virtual Library
Virtual library with information on Zen.
http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Zen.html
Zen
An interactive site devoted to zen and its experience. This page willguide
you through a meditation and teaching session
http://www.do-not-zzz.com/
The
NUBU Page
This page is for those who are looking for an introduction to Buddhism,
with an emphasis on zen. It contains links to informational sites and
recommended books.
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1778/doggnubu.html
Tibet Online
Operated by the international Tibet Support Group community, which strivesto
provide information on the plight and struggles of the Tibetan people.
http://www.Tibet.org/index.html
Milarepa Fund
The Milarepa Fund is a non-profit organization "dedicated to the promotionof
universal compassion and nonviolence." This organization was createdin
1994 in conjunction with the Beastie Boys.
http://www.milarepa.org/
There are many publishers that specialize in Buddhist literature. Below we list someof the more important publishers specializing in Buddhist literature. You may wish toconsult specifica publishers web sites for a more extended bibliography.
- Occhiogrosso, Peter. "Buddhism," The Joy of Sects: a spirited guide to the world's religious traditions , 1991 p.84
- Keown, Damien. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction , 1996 p.16
- Occhiogrosso, p.87
- ibid
- Keown, p.16
- "The Buddha and Buddhism," The New Encyclopedia Britannica Macropaedia Knowledge in Depth , 1998 p.264
- Britannica, p.266
- Occhiogrosso, p.102
- Occhiogrosso, p.102-3
- Keown, p.17
- Occhiogrosso, p.104
- Occhiogrosso, p.103-4
- Occhiogrosso, p.104
- Keown, p.66
- Occhiogrosso, p.105
- Occhiogrosso, p. 83
- Herman, A.L. An introduction to Buddhist Thought ,183 p.28
- Herman, p.29
- Herman, p.30
- Keown, p.23
- Britannica, p.264
- http://www.edepot.com/buddha.html Received on 2/13/00, p.2
- Britannica, p.264
- ibid
- Occhiogrosso, p.87
- Britannica, p.264
- ibid
- Keown, p.21
- Britannica, p.264
- Britannica, p.265
- ibid
- ibid
- ibid
- Britannica, p.265-6
- Britannica, p.266-7
- Keown, p.28
- Herman, p.82
- Britannica, p.267
- Keown, p.29-30
- Kalupahana, David J. A History of Buddhist Philosophy , 1992 p.29
- Keown, p.30
- Keown, p.46-7
- Keown, p.48
- ibid
- Keown, 49-50
- Keown, p.51
- Keown, p.52
- Keown, p.52-3
- Keown, p.54
- Keown, p.55
- Keown, p.57
- Keown, p.57-8
- ibid
- Keown, p.31
- Keown, p.34
- Keown, p.35-6
- Keown, p.39-40
- Kalupahana, p.102
- Keown, p.41
- Britannica, p.276
- Kalupahana, p.28-9
- Britannica, p.276-7
- Kalupahana, p. 26
- Keown, p.28
- Britannica, p.277
- Kalupahana, p.27
- Britannica, p.277-8
- Herman, p.86
- Occhiogrosso, p.97
- Guenther, Herbert V. Buddhist Philosophy in Theory and Practice , 1971 p.22
- Occhiogrosso, p.94
- Britannica, p.281
- Occhiogrosso, p.96
- Britannica, p.281
- Occhiogrosso, p.96
- Britannica, p.281
- ibid
- ibid
- Guenther, p.22
- Occhiogrosso, p.94
- Britannica, p.284
- Occhiogrosso, p.94
- Occhiogrosso, p.96
- Keown, p.61
- Occhiogrosso, p.96
- Britannica, p.284
- Keown, p.62
- Occhiogrosso, p.96
- Occhiogrosso, p.97
- Britannica, p.286
- Britannica, p.287
- ibid
- Britannica, p.288
- ibid
- Britannica, p.289
- Britannica, p.290
- Occhiogrosso, p.111
- Britannica, p.290
- Occhiogrosso, p.108
- Britannica, p.290
- Britannica, p.291
- Occhiogrosso, p.114
- http://www.connect.net/ron/tibetanbuddhism.htmlReceived on 5/4/00, p.1
- Kohn, Sherab Chodzin. "A Short History of Buddhism," Radiant Mind: Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts , 1999 p.19-31
- Kohn, p.26
- Kohn, p.26-7
- Kohn, p.27-8
- De Jong, Jan Willem. A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America , 1987 p.8
- De Jong, p.13
- Kohn, p.31
Created by
Teresa Nguyen
For Soc 452: Sociology of Religious Behavior
University of Virginia
Spring Term, 2000
Last modified: 01/12/02